User:Biz/Greece-Turkey/background

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Byzantine and Göktürk relations: 6th–7th centuries[edit]

See also: Third Perso-Turkic War, Pannonian Avars § Avars and pseudo-Avars, Nushibi, and Western Turkic Khaganate

The Göktürks of the First Turkic Khaganate, which came to prominence in 552 CE, were the first Turkic state to use the name Türk politically.[1] They played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the Persian Sasanian Empire.[2] The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (the Pannonian Avars) ran away during their war with the Hephthalites.[2][3]

The second contact occurred when Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi (known as Silziboulos in Greek writings[4]) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperor Justin II. While the Sogdians were only interested in trade, the Turks in the embassy proposed an alliance against the Persians which Justin agreed to.[5] The Persians had previously broken their alliance with the Turks due to the competitive threat they represented.[6] This alliance guaranteed the arrival of west-bound silks from China[7] and increased the risk of a war on two fronts for the Persians, with hostilities that would eventuate with the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591.[8] In 569 an embassy led by Zemarchus occurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.[2][9]

Another set of embassies occurred in 575–576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility by Turxanthos due to alleged treachery.[3] They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.[10] The subsequent hostility shown by the new ruler Tardu[10][11] would be matched in Byzantine writings.[12] With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).[2]

Years later, they would collaborate again when their interest aligned. The Turks attacked the Avars when they sacked a Byzantine city in the Balkans (Anchialos in 584). Toward the end of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the Turks allied with the Byzantine Empire and played a decisive role with the Third Perso-Turkic War.

Byzantine and Seljuk-Ottoman relations: 11th–15th centuries[edit]

Main articles: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars and Byzantine–Seljuk wars

The Seljuk Turks was a Sunni Muslim dynasty from the Qiniq branch of the Oghuz Turks.[13] They gradually became Persianate and contributed to the Turco-Persian tradition[14][15] in the medieval Middle East and Central Asia. The Seljuks established both the Seljuk Empire and the Sultanate of Rum, which at their heights stretched from modern day Iran to Anatolia, and were targets of the First Crusade.

Byzantine territory (purple), Byzantine campaigns (red) and Seljuk campaigns (green)
  • After the conquest of territories in present-day Iran by the Seljuq Empire, a large number of Oghuz Turks arrived on the Byzantine Empire's borderlands of Armenia in the late 1040s. Eager for plunder and distinction in the path of jihad, they began raiding the Byzantine provinces in Armenia.[16] At the same time, the eastern defenses of the Byzantine Empire had been weakened by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (r. 1042–1055), who allowed the thematic troops (provincial levies) of Iberia and Mesopotamia to relinquish their military obligations in favour of tax payments.[17] As a consequence of this invasion, the Battle of Kapetron occurred in 1048.
  • Over the next century, the Byzantine and Seljuk armies would fight many battles, with the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 considered a turning point in the history of Anatolia. The legacy of this defeat would be the loss of the Byzantine Empire's Anatolian heartland.[18][19] The battle itself did not directly change the balance of power between the Byzantines and the Seljuks; however the ensuing civil war within the Byzantine Empire did, to the advantage of the Seljuks.[20]
  • Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, worried about the advances of the Seljuks in the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert of 1071 who had reached as far west as Nicaea, sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza in March 1095 to ask Pope Urban II for aid against the invading Turks.[21] What followed was the First Crusade.
  • The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate.[22] Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II, was murdered in 1308.

The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Turkish principalities. Among them were the Ottoman dynasty, which originated from the Kayı tribe[nb 1] branch of the Oghuz Turks in 1299,[24] and which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire. Over the next 150 years, the Byzantine–Ottoman wars were a series of decisive conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and Byzantines that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire and the dominance of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire. They followed by conquering its splinter states, such as the Despotate of the Morea in 1460, the Empire of Trebizond in 1461, and the Principality of Theodoro in 1475.

Ottoman and Romioi/Rum relations: 1453–1821[edit]

See also: Names of the Greeks, Background of the Greek War of Independence, and Greek Plan
A map of the territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire from 1307 to 1683.

All of modern Greece by the time of the capture of the Desporate of the Morea was under Ottoman authority, with the exception of some of the islands.

  • Islands such as Rhodes (1522), Cyprus (1571), and Crete (1669) resisted longer due to other empires that came into power from the Frankokratia days
  • The Ionian Islands were never ruled by the Ottomans, with the exception of Kefalonia (from 1479 to 1481 and from 1485 to 1500), and remained under the rule of the Republic of Venice until their capture by the First French Republic in 1797, then passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until their unification with Greece in 1864.[25]
  • The mountains of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks who desired to flee Ottoman rule and engage in guerrilla warfare.[26]
  • In 1770, the Ottoman army invaded the Mani, one of a series of battles by the Ottomans to subdue the Maniots. The Ottoman's would attempt again in 1803, 1807 and 1815.

Life under the Ottoman Empire had several dimensions

Romioi in various places of the Greek peninsula would at times rise up against Ottoman rule, taking advantage of wars the Ottoman Empire would engage in. Those uprisings were of mixed scale and impact.

Greek nationalism started to appear in the 18th century.

  • Following the Orlov Revolt and the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca gave Russian involvement to intervene on the side of Ottoman Eastern Orthodox subjects.
  • Greek ethnic identity had fused with the Rum millet identity. However, the 18th century enlightenment would inspire a new secular "Hellenic" identity of the Rum millet. There was a reconceptualisation of the Rum Millet from being Greek Orthodox religion adherents to all Greek speakers[44] The French Revolution further intensified the growing battle between conservative and liberal Greek Orthodox elites and in the 1790–1800 decade a heated conflict broke out [45]
  • Despite Greek-speaking and non-Greek speaking Orthodox Christians at the time identifying as Romioi, one of the enlightenment intellectuals Adamantios Korais pushed the word Graikoi as a replacement as it helped disassociate it from the Roman heritage and the Church (as well as being an older word than Hellenes).[46]
  • Revolutionary instigator Rigas Velestinlis and the Filiki Eteria behind the 1821 uprising intended to have a Balkan Orthodox uprising and a coalition between all the different ethnic communities.[44] The focus of revolution ideology was the division between the Muslim Ottoman privileged class Askeri with the second class citizens Rayah which was predominately Greek Orthodox.[47][48]
  • Ottoman authorities believed Russia's imperial agenda and the general weakness of the state rather than conscientious political action is why the Greek revolution started.[49]

In March 1821, the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire began. In Constantinople, on Easter Sunday, the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged although he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan in his sermons.[50]

Formation of Greece: 1822–1832[edit]

Main articles: Greek War of Independence and First Hellenic Republic
Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947

Building on the success of the first year of war, the Greek Constitution of 1822 would be the first of the new state, adopted at the first National Assembly at Epidaurus.

However, the Greek victories would be short-lived as civil war would weaken its ability to react; the Sultan called for aid from his Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali, who dispatched his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with a fleet and 8,000 men, and later added 25,000 troops.[51] Ibrahim's intervention proved decisive: much of the Peloponnese was reconquered in 1825; the gateway town of Messolonghi fell in 1826; and Athens was taken in 1827. The only territory still held by Greek nationalists was in Nafplion, Mani, Hydra, Spetses and Aegina.[51][52][53] During this time, there were many massacres during the Greek War of Independence committed by both revolutionaries and the Ottoman Empire's forces.

The Treaty of London (1827) was declined by the Ottoman Empire, which led to the Battle of Navarino in 1827. The French Morea expedition between 1828 and 1833 would expel Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese and the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) which occurred in retaliation due to Russian support at Navarino, led to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) which enforced the Treaty of London. Karl Marx in an article in the New York Tribune (21 April 1853), wrote: "Who solved finally the Greek case? It was neither the rebellion of Ali Pasha, neither the battle in Navarino, neither the French Army in Peloponnese, neither the conferences and protocols of London; but it was Diebitsch, who invaded through the Balkans to Evros".[54]

The establishment of a Greek state was recognized in the London Protocol of 1828 but it was not until the London Protocol (1830), which amended the decisions of the 1829 protocol, that Greece was established as an independent, sovereign state. The assassination of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece's first governor, would lead to the London Conference of 1832 and that formed the Kingdom of Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople (1832).

The first borders of the Greek state consisted of the Greek mainland south of a line from Arta to Volos plus Euboea and the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea. The rest of the Greek-speaking lands, including Crete, Cyprus and the rest of the Aegean islands, Epirus, Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace, remained under Ottoman rule. Over one million Greeks also lived in what is now Turkey, mainly in the Aegean region of Asia Minor, especially around Smyrna, in the Pontus region on the Black Sea coast, in the Gallipoli peninsula, in Cappadocia, in Istanbul, in Imbros and in Tenedos.

Kingdom of Greece and Ottoman Empire: 1832–1913[edit]

Main articles: Eastern Question, Megali Idea, Greco-Turkish War (1897), and Balkan Wars
The first Ottoman ambassador to the Greek Kingdom, the Phanariote Konstantinos Mousouros, at a ball in the royal palace in Athens

The relations between Greece and the Ottoman Empire during this time period were shaped by two concepts:

  • Termed in history as the Eastern Question with regards to the "sick man of Europe", it encompassed myriad interrelated elements: Ottoman military defeats, Ottoman institutional insolvency, the ongoing Ottoman political and economic modernization programme, the rise of ethno-religious nationalism in its provinces, and Great Power rivalries.[55]
  • In Greek politics, the Megali Idea.[56] It was an irredentist concept that expressed the goal of reviving the Byzantine Empire,[57] by establishing a Greek state, which would include the large Greek populations that were still under Ottoman rule after the end of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1828) and all the regions that had large Greek populations (parts of the Southern Balkans, Asia Minor and Cyprus).[58] The term was first introduced by Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis in 1844 in the inaugural speech of the first Greek constitution in front of Greece's parliament for a common destiny of all Greeks.[59] During the Crimean war the following decade, it became a platform for territorial expansion.[60] It came to dominate foreign relations and played a significant role in domestic politics for much of the first century of Greek independence.

There were five wars that directly and indirectly linked all conflict

  • Crimean War (1854 to 1856). Britain and France prevented Greece from attacking the Ottomans by occupying Piraeus. The unsuccessful Epirus Revolt of 1854 tried to take advantage of this period.
  • Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878): Greece was prevented from taking military action during this war in 1877, in which the Greeks were keen to join in with the objective of territorial expansion, but Greece was unable to take any effective part in the war. Nevertheless, after the Congress of Berlin, in 1881 Greece was given most of Thessaly and part of Epirus. The 1878 Greek Macedonian rebellion and Epirus Revolt of 1878 occurred during this period.
  • Greco-Turkish War (1897): A new revolt in Crete led to the first direct war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire. An unprepared Greek army was unable to dislodge the Ottoman troops from their fortifications along the northern border, and with the resulting Ottoman counter-attack, the war resulted in minor territorial losses for Greece.
  • The two Balkan Wars (1912–1913): Four Balkan states, forming the Balkan League, defeated the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against all four original combatants of the first war. (It also faced an attack from Romania from the north.) The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. The First Balkan War had Greece seize Crete, the islands, the rest of Thessaly and Epirus, and coastal Macedonia from the Ottomans. Crete was once again the flashpoint for tension between the two nations. The Treaty of London ended the First Balkan war, but no one was left satisfied. The Treaty of Bucharest, concluded the Second Balkan War, which left Greece with southern Epirus, the southern-half of Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, except for the Dodecanese, which had been occupied by Italy in 1911. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population.
Population of Greeks in Asia Minor after the Balkan Wars

The Young Turks, who seized power in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, were Turkish nationalists whose objective was to create a strong, centrally governed state. The Christian minorities of the Empire, including Greeks, saw their position in the Empire deteriorate.

  1. ^ West, Barbara A. (19 May 2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 829. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
  2. ^ a b c d Qiang, Li; Kordosis, Stefanos (2018). "The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Türks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications". Medieval Worlds. medieval worlds (Volume 8. 2018): 109–125. doi:10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109. ISSN 2412-3196. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help)
  3. ^ a b Sinor, Dennis (1996). The First Türk Empire (553–682). pp. 327–332. ISBN 978-92-3-103211-0. Retrieved 2022-01-23. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Eliot, C. (1908). Turkey in Europe. United Kingdom: E. Arnold. Page 76
  5. ^ Howard, Michael C. (2012). Transnationalism in ancient and medieval societies : the role of cross-border trade and travel. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2. OCLC 779849477.
  6. ^ Erdemir, Hatice (2004-08-20). "The Nature of Turko-Byzantine Relations in the Sixth Century Ad". Belleten. 68 (252): 427–428. doi:10.37879/belleten.2004.423. ISSN 0041-4255. S2CID 131539566.
  7. ^ Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. Michael Adas, American Historical Association. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 2001. p. 168. ISBN 1-56639-831-2. OCLC 44493265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  8. ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2021). Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford. Boston: Brill. p. 10. ISBN 978-90-04-46066-9. OCLC 1250074550.
  9. ^ Whittow, Mark (2018-04-26), Di Cosmo, Nicola; Maas, Michael (eds.), "Byzantium's Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Türk Empire", Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 271–286, doi:10.1017/9781316146040.021, ISBN 978-1-316-14604-0, retrieved 2022-01-23, "Mark Whittow directly suggests that this embassy reached an agreement for a joint attack on the Persians planned for 573.
  10. ^ a b Menander, Protector, activeth century (1985). The history of Menander the Guardsman. R. C. Blockley. Liverpool, Great Britain: F. Cairns. pp. 173–177. ISBN 0-905205-25-1. OCLC 14355502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Peter B. Golden (2011). Central Asia in World History. p. 39. At a subsequent embassy, Tardu yelled at Valentine in anger, venting his rage saying "Are you not those very Romans who use ten tongues and lie with all of them?
  12. ^ Maurice, Strategikon, ed. Dennis and Gamillscheg, 360;Maurice's Strategikon : handbook of Byzantine military strategy. Emperor of the East Maurice, Orbicius, George T. Dennis. Philadelphia. 1984. p. 116. ISBN 0-8122-7899-2. OCLC 9575024. They [the Turks] were superstitious, treacherous, foul, faithless, possessed by an insatiate desire for riches. They scorn their oath, do not observe agreements, and are not satisfied by gifts. Even before they accept the gift, they are making plans for treachery and betrayal of their agreements. They are clever at estimating suitable opportunities to do this and taking prompt advantage of them. They prefer to prevail over their enemies not so much by force as by deceit, surprise attacks, and cutting off supplies.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ^ The Turkic Languages. 2015. p. 25. The name 'Seljuk is a political rather than ethnic name. It derives from Selčiik, born Toqaq Temir Yally, a war-lord (sil-baši), from the Qiniq tribal grouping of the Oghuz. Seljuk, in the rough and tumble of internal Oghuz politics, fled to Jand, c.985, after falling out with his overlord. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  14. ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes, (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 161,164; "renewed the Seljuk attempt to found a great Turko-Persian empire in eastern Iran..", "It is to be noted that the Seljuks, those Turkomans who became sultans of Persia, did not Turkify Persia-no doubt because they did not wish to do so. On the contrary, it was they who voluntarily became Persians and who, in the manner of the great old Sassanid kings, strove to protect the Iranian populations from the plundering of Ghuzz bands and save Iranian culture from the Turkoman menace."
  15. ^ Nishapuri, Zahir al-Din Nishapuri (2001), "The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami’ al-Tawarikh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the Saljuq-nama of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri," Partial tr. K.A. Luther, ed. C.E. Bosworth, Richmond, UK. K.A. Luther, p. 9: "[T]he Turks were illiterate and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire")
  16. ^ Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017). Byzantium and the emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040–1130. London. pp. 74–77. ISBN 978-1-315-27103-3. OCLC 973223067.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Vryonis, Speros (1971). The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century. Mazal Holocaust Collection. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-520-01597-5. OCLC 174800.
  18. ^ Fleet, Kate (2009). The Cambridge History of Turkey: Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453: Volume 1 (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 1."The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes by the Turkomans at the battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert) is taken as a turning point in the history of Anatolia and the Byzantine Empire. From this time the Byzantines were unable to stem the flow of the Turks into Anatolia and the slow process of Turkification had begun."
  19. ^ Asbridge, Thomas S. (2010). The Crusades : the authoritative history of the war for the Holy Land (1st ed.). New York: Ecco. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-06-078728-8. OCLC 525318942. Thomas Asbridge says: "In 1071, the Seljuqs crushed an imperial army at the Battle of Manzikert (in eastern Asia Minor), and though historians no longer consider this to have been an utterly cataclysmic reversal for the Greeks, it still was a stinging setback."
  20. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 563. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
  21. ^ Blumenthal, Uta-Renate (2006). "Piacenza, Council of (1095)". In The Crusades – An Encyclopedia. pp. 956–957.
  22. ^ John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
  23. ^ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7. That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it
    • Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. SUNY Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6. Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
    • Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. The problem of Ottoman origins has preoccupied students of history, but because of both the absence of contemporary source materials and conflicting accounts written subsequent to the events there seems to be no basis for a definitive statement.
  24. ^ Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
  25. ^ Richard Clogg (20 June 2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4. OCLC 1000695918.
  26. ^ World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. 2009. p. 1478. ISBN 978-0-7614-7902-4. The klephts were descendants of Greeks who fled into the mountains to avoid the Turks in the fifteenth century and who remained active as brigands into the nineteenth century.
  27. ^ a b Masters, Bruce (2006). "Christians in a changing world". In Faroqhi, Suraiya N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Turkey, Volume 3: The Late Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 272–280. ISBN 978-0-521-62095-6. LCCN 2006013835.
  28. ^ Istoriia na bŭlgarite. Georgi Markov, Dimitŭr. Zafirov, Emil Aleksandrov, Георги. Марков, Димитър. Зафиров, Емил Александров (1. izd ed.). Sofia: Izd-vo "Znanie". 2004. p. 23. ISBN 9799545282897. OCLC 69645946. A sultan's Firman in 1680 lists the ethnic groups on the Balkan lands as follows: Greeks (Rum), Albanians (Arnaut), Serbs (Sirf), "Vlachs" (Eflak, referring to the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians), and Bulgarians (Bulgar).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  29. ^ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city : the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC 1019481205.
  30. ^ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city : the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC 1019481205.
  31. ^ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city : the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC 1019481205. According to Kavanin-i Yeni eriyan, it was forbidden to take the only son of a family, or more than one boy from the same family; and only one boy could be taken from every forty households. Uzun arşılı states that "the one in forty" application was rarely used, but the basis for his statement is unclear
  32. ^ Taxation in the Ottoman Empire
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  34. ^ Ιωάννης Λυκούρης (1954). Η διοίκησις και δικαιοσύνη των τουρκοκρατούμενων νήσων : Αίγινα – Πόρος – Σπέτσαι – Ύδρα κλπ., επί τη βάσει εγγράφων του ιστορικού αρχείου Ύδρας και άλλων. Αθήνα. Ανακτήθηκε στις 7 Δεκεμβρίου 2010.
  35. ^ Παναγής Σκουζές (1777–1847) (1948). Χρονικό της σκλαβωμένης Αθήνας στα χρόνια της τυρανίας του Χατζή Αλή (1774–1796). Αθήνα: Α. Κολολού. Ανακτήθηκε στις 6 Ιανουαρίου 2011.
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  38. ^ Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall: Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches: Bd. 1574–1623, p. 442; note a. "Prete scorticato, la pelle sua piena di paglia portata in Constantinopoli con molte teste dei figli d'Albanesi, che avevano intelligenza colli Spagnoli"[1]
  39. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991), Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century, Diane Publishing p189
  40. ^ Finlay, George (1856). The History of Greece under Othoman and Venetian Domination. London: William Blackwood and Sons. p 210-3
  41. ^ George Childs Kohn (Editor) Dictionary of Wars Archived 2013-11-09 at the Wayback Machine 650 pages ISBN 1-57958-204-4 ISBN 978-1579582043 Page 155
  42. ^ Finley, The history of Greece under Othman and Venetian Domination, 1856 pp. 330–334
  43. ^ Dakin, Douglas The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833, University of California Press, (1973) pp. 26–27
  44. ^ a b Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 33. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN 1086-3265. S2CID 144013073.
  45. ^ Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 33. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN 1086-3265. S2CID 144013073. The French Revolution, which intensified this battle between conservative and liberal Greek Orthodox elites, represented the second main source of inspiration for the new secular Greek Orthodox intelligentsia. In the 1790–1800 decade, a heated conflict broke out between conservatives and liberals during which the Church did not hesitate to condemn Godless "Franco-masonic" ideas, while proponents of "enlightened reason" accused the Church of "voluntary slavery."
  46. ^ Zervas, Theodore G. (2010-01-01). Resurrecting the Past, Constructing the Future: A Historical Investigation on the Formation of a Greek National Identity in Schools, 1834–1913. Loyola eCommons. p. 91. OCLC 881641720.
  47. ^ "Kemal Karpat. An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: From Social Estates to Classes, from Millets to Nations. (Research Monograph number 39.) Princeton: Center of International Studies, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University. 1973". The American Historical Review. 1973. doi:10.1086/ahr/80.3.695-a. ISSN 1937-5239. Cited in Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 21. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN 1086-3265. S2CID 144013073.
  48. ^ Neoklēs, Sarris (1990). οσμανική πραγματικότητα (Osmanikē pragmatikotēta): systēmikē para-thesē domōn kai leiturgiōn. 1, To despotiko kratos. Athens: Arsenidēs. ISBN 960-253-002-2. OCLC 633532188. Cited in Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 21. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN 1086-3265. S2CID 144013073.
  49. ^ Ilıcak, H. Şükrü (2021). "Those Infidel Greeks" (2 vols.) The Greek War of Independence through Ottoman Archival Documents. pp. 1–30 (introduction). ISBN 978-90-04-47130-6. OCLC 1286298373. Fear of collapse and dissolution, heavy emphasis on foreign conspiracy and intervention, categorical denial of the insurgents' historical agency, the pampered "other" turning into pawns in the hands of foreign powers, a discourse of isolation in the international arena, and a feeling of victimization are the main themes that run through the documents in this book, mainstream Ottoman/Turkish historiography, and, indeed, the speeches of contemporary Turkish politicians
  50. ^ Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 p. 105.
  51. ^ a b Hellenic Army General Staff (1998). An index of events in the military history of the Greek nation. Athens: Army History Directorate. pp. 51, 54. ISBN 960-7897-27-7. OCLC 50662008.
  52. ^ Woodhouse, C. M. (1977). The Philhellenes. Doric. p. 192. ISBN 0-902999-09-5. OCLC 13053581.
  53. ^ Péchoux, Pierre-Yves (1994-01-01). "Georges Contogeorgis, Histoire de la Grèce, Paris, 1992, 479 p. / Arthur de Gobineau, Au royaume des Hellènes, 1993, 312 p." CEMOTI (17): 329–331. doi:10.4000/cemoti.296. ISSN 0764-9878.
  54. ^ Marx, Karl (April 21, 1853). "What Is to Become of Turkey in Europe?". New York Tribune.
  55. ^ Theophilus C. Prousis. Review of Macfie, A. L., The Eastern Question, 1774–1923. Habsburg, H-Net Reviews. December, 1996. [2]
  56. ^ Mateos, Natalia Ribas. The Mediterranean in the Age of Globalization: Migration, Welfare & Borders. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9781412837750.
  57. ^ Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies; Brill, 2013; ISBN 900425076X, p. 200.
  58. ^ "European Election Database – Background – Greece". o.nsd.no.
  59. ^ Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2011). "Redefining the Nation: Shifting Boundaries of the 'Other' in Greece and Turkey". Middle Eastern Studies. 47 (1): 169–170. doi:10.1080/00263206.2011.536632. hdl:11693/11995. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 27920347. S2CID 44340675.
  60. ^ Κρεμμυδας, Βασιλης (2010). Η μεγάλη ιδέα : μεταμορφώσεις ενός εθνικού ιδεολογήματος. Ekdoseis Typōthētō. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-960-402-374-5. OCLC 681904431. cited in Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"". In Ransohoff, Jake; Aschenbrenner, Nathanael (eds.). The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 360. ISBN 9780884024842.


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